All major works on semantic theory have so far been based on referential concepts of meaning. The best known referential model of meaning is .................................

The definition of the meaning is especially difficult ........................ ..................................the process by which language and human consciousness serve to reflect the reality and adopt it to human needs

The subjective part of meaning is the connotation of the word. ........................... .................. are subjective, they characterize the speaker, his attitude, his social role.

There are four types of connotation:

Antonyms are words of the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning.

Many words, especially those denoting concrete objects (chair, tree, tiger) have no antonyms. Usually adjectives denoting qualities, verbs ............................. actions or state and abstract nouns have antonyms

A metaphor is a figure of speech that refers to something as being the same as another thing for rhetorical effect. It may provide ................................... ................hidden similarities between two ideas. Where a compares two items, a metaphor directly equates them, and does not use "like" or "as" as does a simile.

..........................................exist in language and are reproduced in speech as ready-made units, whereas free word groups or combinations are created in speech every time we need them.

Lexicography, the science, of dictionary-compiling, is closely connected with lexicology, both dealing with the same problems — the form, meaning, usage and origin of vocabulary units — and making ......................of each other’s achievements.

Phraseological unities are word-groups with a completely changed meaning, that is, the meaning of the unit does not correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts. They are ......................................or, putting it another way, the meaning of the whole unit can be deduced from the meanings of the constituent parts.

In an encyclopaedia the entry influenza discloses the causes, symptoms, characteristics and varieties of this disease, various treatments of and remedies for it, ways of infection, etc. Though, ....................................., it is with linguistic dictionaries that lexicology is closely connected and in our further consideration

Dictionaries of alphabetic languages list words in alphabetical order. With non-alphabetic languages, it may be different. The order in a dictionary with ideographic entries such as Chinese character is often troublesome and ............................................. because each character has different readings.

An English word does not necessarily contain formatives indicating to what part of speech it belongs. This holds true ...............................................................i.e. nouns, verbs, adjectives. Not all roots are free forms, but productive roots, i.e. roots capable of producing new words, usually are

..................................... related to parts of human body, clothing or instruments people use. However, the meaning of the converted words may vary from the meaning of the non-converted words. For example, a skirt denotes a woman’s garment that hangs from the waist

................................................. ..may form noun plurals (the Germans); genitive case (headmaster’s); 3rd person singular (speaks); past tense (worked); contracted forms (we´re); comparatives and superlatives (bigger; the biggest) or participles (speaking).

Unlike roots, affixes are always bound forms...................................

........................................., it will be remembered, is not confined to their respective position, suffixes being «fixed after» and prefixes «fixed before» the stem. It also concerns their function and meaning

Derivational suffixes ...................

................................... of the original word: they may change the word class, specify the word or generalise it. Most scholars recognise suffixes forming nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs

A suffix is a ..........................

.................................................. following the stem and forming a new derivative in a different part of speech or a different word class, cf. – en, – y, – less in hearten, hearty, heartless

Lexicology is .................................. ....................................derivational affixes, the other group being the domain of grammarians. The derivational affixes in fact, as well as the whole problem of word-formation, form a boundary area between lexicology and grammar and are therefore studied in both

An infix is ...................................

.....................................placed with in the word, like – n – in stand. The type is not productive

If we realize that suffixes render the most general semantic component of the word's lexical meaning.................................................................................................., the reason why suffixes are as a rule semantically fused with the stem stands explained

Clippings, blendings and acronyms are subclasses of so called “portmanteau words” .....................

........................... fragments of two or more words